Here is another Gem written in the early 90's. This may not belong in this thread but ...
An exploration of alternative measures of natural
resource scarcity: the case of petroleum resources
in the U.S.
Cutler J. Cleveland
Center for Energy and Environmental Studies and Department of Geography,
675 Commonwealth AL’e., Boston, MA 02215, USA
(Received 23 September 1991; accepted 9 June 1992)
ABSTRACI
Cleveland, C.J., 1993. An exploration of alternative measures of natural resource scarcity:
the case of petroleum resources in the U.S. Ecol. Econ., 7: 123-157.
The concern about natural resource scarcity has traditionally focused on changes in the
cost, quality, and availability of energy and material inputs to the production process.
Ecological economists are increasingly concerned with an additional aspect of scarcity -
the growing scarcity of environmental services that sustain human economic existence. The
analysis here explores economic and biophysical indicators of natural resource scarcity. The
indices are quantified for the extraction of petroleum resources in the U.S. The economic
indicators are the market price of crude oil and natural gas, the unit (capital plus labor) cost
of extraction, and the average total cost of extraction (dollars per Btu extracted). The
biophysical index is the energy return on investment (EROI). All indices show a trend of
decreasing and then increasing scarcity of petroleum at the wellhead. The economic and
biophysical cost indices indicate that the 1960s marked the transition from a decreasing to
an increasing cost resource base. The market price of oil is influenced by nonscarcity forces
to the extent that it does not reflect that turning point. The increase in the energy cost of
petroleum extraction is in stark contrast to the changes in the energy cost of producing
other goods and services in the U.S. economy, which generally declined in the last 20 years.
The increase in the energy cost of extraction has important economic implications. From
1954 to 1987, the fraction of total industrial output in the U.S. generated in the petroleum
extraction sector declined almost 40%. Despite the declining share of its output, the
petroleum industry’s share of direct energy use (fossil fuels and electricity) generally
increased in that period. The result is a clear increase in the amount of energy diverted
from other potential uses to secure an additional unit of output in the petroleum sector.
None of the indicators reflect to any degree substantial nonmarketed environmental cost of
petroleum extraction. The biophysical perspective, however, emphasizes the coupling between
physical scarcity and the demands that extraction places on renewable resources and
ecosystem services. The extraction of one barrel-of-oil-equivalent, for example, requires 250
gallons of fresh water and emits more than 60 pounds of CO:, and these costs are
increasing.
An exploration of alternative measures of natural ...